Substance use Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Substance use - Essay Example It appears that availability of opioids and subcultural factors are key in opioid use† (Encylopedia of Mental Disorders par. 19). In recent times, opioid abuse has increased through being given routine 30-day prescriptions for opioids as painkillers for illnesses requiring only a day or two for the pain to subside (Kluger par.2). 2. Give some examples of the use of hallucinogenic plants or drugs in connection with religious practices. The article on hallucinogens published in Medical Discoveries indicates that hallucinogenic plants or drugs have been used in connection with religious practices. (1) â€Å"Medicine men, shamans, and other spiritual leaders have used natural hallucinogens found in plants and mushrooms since ancient times, believing in their power to help contact the spiritual world or mystical beings for guidance in serving their people† (par. 4); (2) â€Å"In Mexico, mushrooms called Psylocybe mexicana, which contain the fungi psilocybin and psilocin, hav e been used in religious rituals since the time of the Aztec civilization† (par. 6); (3) â€Å"Peyote is the only psychedelic agent that has been authorized by the federal government for limited use during Native American religious ceremonies† (par. 7). 3.

Carrier Liability Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Carrier Liability - Essay Example It is, however, necessary to refer to the Hague-Visby Rules (hereinafter referred to as HVR) and case law in order to investigate the carrier's liability. The HVR function to clarify the duties owed to, and responsibilities owed by, cargo liners, providing a comprehensive explication of the circumstances and types of damages to cargo which carriers are not liable for as well as those that they may be held liable for. Further, and as established by CoGSA (1971) and by national courts, HVR is applicable when either party to the dispute is a member of a Contracting State.1 With these points in mind, the issues to be investigated are, firstly, whether HVR is applicable in this instance and, secondly, in case of applicability, whether the carrier is liable for the damages to the rice. As determined by English law, and as further emphasised through CoGSA, HVR is enforceable upon carriers travelling from any port in Great Britain and Northern Ireland to any port within it.2 More relevant, however, is the fact that it is enforceable upon carriers that are travelling from a port or to any port which is party to HVR.3 The implication here is the HVR is enforceable as both the USA and Netherlands are parties to HVR. Within the context of the stated, it is important to note that Articles III, 1c and III, 2 of HVR establish the carrier as responsible for ensuring that its holds and chambers are well-suited for the storage of cargo, including their preservation and protection.4 These articles further emphasise that the carrier, including its personnel, are obligated to exercise all due caution to safely store and protect the goods.5 Furthermore, as stipulated in Article II, not only is the carrier responsible for the safe storage of the cargo but it is further liable for any damages which may befall the goods through loading and stowing.6 The above mentioned articles are immediately relevant to the question of the carrier's liability towards the damages which the rates may have wreaked upon the bagged rice. In brief, they establish liability as a direct outcome of the failure of the crew to exercise due care regarding the protection of the cargo from damages. The carrier's liability is established by HVR. HVR, Article IV, 2b states that the carrier is not liable for damages to cargo by "fire, unless caused by the actual fault or privity of the carrier." 7 This liability directly arises from Article IV, 1's assertion that the carrier and its personnel are obligated to exercise all "due diligence" to ensure that the ship is seaworthy and its crew fit.8 The crew did not exercise the requisite due diligence, as is evident from the failure to report the sighting of the rates and, the vessel was not seaworthy, a fact which takes on additional importance when considering liability for delay in delivery. Case law supports the argument pertaining to the carrier's liability, as in the matter of Papera Traders Co Ltd & Ors V (1) Hyundai Merchant Marine Co Ltd (2) Keihin Co Ltd Sub Nom Eurasian Dream (2002)9 In this case, the cargo owners sued the carrier following the occurrence of a fire which destroyed the cargo and rendered the vessel a total loss. As the owners of the

Examine the ways in which feminism has contributed Essay Example for Free

Examine the ways in which feminism has contributed Essay Examine the ways In which femlnlsm has contributed to our understanding of families Feminists take critical views of the family as they argue it oppresses women and therefore creates issues such as unequal divisions of domestic labour and domestic violence against women. Feminists believe that there is a triple burden of paid work. domestic labour and emotional work. Also gender Inequality Is not regarded as natural or Inevitable, but something that has been created by society. Feminists also argue that the oppression of women is due to patriarchy. The New Right has been criticised by feminists such as Ann Oakley (1997) as it has a conservative and anti-feminist perspective on the family. The New Right is firmly opposed to family diversity. The New Right sees the nuclear family as the natural family and Is based upon fundamental biological differences between men and women. In their view, the nuclear family has clear-cut divisions of labour between the breadwinner-husband and homemaker-wife. Therefore leading to criticisms from feminists. Ann Oakley argues that the New Right wrongly assumes that husbands and wives roles are fixed by biology. She also believes that the New Right view of the family is a negative reaction against the feminist campaign for womens equality. Even more so, other feminists argue that the traditional nuclear family favoured by the New Right Is based on the patriarchal oppression of women and Is a fundamental cause of gender inequality. In this view, it prevents women working and keeps them financially dependent on me. Feminism is often referred to as feminisms as it is acknowledge that the feminist label Is broad and a cover many types of feminist. The main types of feminists are; Liberal, Marxist, Radical and Dfference. Liberal feminists such as Jenny Somerville (2000) believe that the main obstacle for women is the equality in attitudes, practices and law in which can be changed without any fundamental changes to the structure of society. They also are concerned with campaigning against sex discrimination and for equal rights and opportunities. Through people favouring and challenging the gender role soclallsatlon In childhood, attitudes can then be changed towards roles In the family. Liberal feminists argue that womens oppression is gradually being overcome hrough the changing attitudes and changes in laws such as the Sex Discrimination Act (1975) which outlaws discrimination in employment. Even more so Liberal feminists hold a similar view to theorists such as Young and Willmott, although they do not believe full gender equality has been achieved in the family, they argue It has been a gradual progress. Through the gradual progress of changing attitudes, the ways In wnlcn cn110ren are soclallsea In tne Tamlly Is now OITTerent. Daugnters are socialised more equally to sons in the modern day compared to the past. However, ther feminists such as Marxist and Radical, criticise Liberal feminists for failing to challenge the underlying causes of womens oppression and for believing that changes in law or attitudes will be enough to bring equality. Marxist feminists and Radical feminists believe instead that far-reaching revolutionary changes to deep- root social structures are needed. Another type of feminist is Marxist feminism, and they argue that the main cause of womens oppression in the family is not men, but capitalism. Several functions are performed through womens oppression for capitalism, firstly that women reproduce he labour force, through their unpaid domestic labour and by socialising the next generation of workers and maintain the servicing of the current generation. Another function is that women absorb anger that would otherwise be directed at capitalism. Wives are describe as takers of shit by Fran Ansley (1972) who acknowledges that women soak up the frustration of their husbands feelings due to the alienation and exploitation they suffer at work. This is a primary example for Marxists, as it explains male domestic violence against women. Abbot and Wallace (1990) note that the main ause of domestic violence is the male perception that the partner is failing her duties. Dobash and Dobash (1979) also found that these duties tended to be about sex, money and home making. Due to the male perception of the partner failing her duties, it is often resulted in the women believing that they deserved to be beaten. Also women are a reserve army of cheap labour, meaning that when extra workers are needed women shall be taken on to work, but as soon as they are no longer needed the employers let them go to return to their primary role as unpaid domestic labour. However, Radical feminists have been critical based on the emphasis is being put on capitalist forms of exploitation. They argue that patriarchy predates Capitalism which makes it a more significant explanation of female exploitation and oppression. Radical feminists argue that all societies have been founded on patriarchy and for radical feminists the key division in society is between me and women. Radical feminists see men as the enemy as they are the source of womens oppression and exploitation. Also that the family and marriage are the key institutions in patriarchal ociety. Men benefit form womens domestic labour and from their sexual services, and they dominate women through domestic and sexual violence or the threat of it. Radical feminists argue that the family is the root of womens oppression, so therefore must be abolished. They also argue that the only way to achieve this is through separatism, where women must live independently of men. Even more so, radical feminists argue for political lesbianism, which is the idea that heterosexual relationships are inevitably oppressive because they involve sleeping with the enemy. Germaine Greer (2000) argues for the creation of all-female or matrilocal households as an alternative to the heterosexual family. However, for liberal feminists such as Jenny Somerville (2000), radical feminists fail to recognise that womens position has improved considerably with better access to Jobs, divorce and control over tnelr own Tertlll ty Somerville also argues tnat separatlsm Is unlikely to work as heterosexual attraction makes it unlikely that the conventional nuclear family will disappear. On the other hand, Somerville does agree that women have yet to chieve full equality. The feminist approaches already considered tend to assume that most women live in conventional nuclear families and that they share a similar experience of family life. However, difference feminists argue that women have very different experiences of the family from one another and so therefore cannot be generalised. For example, working-class and middle-class women, black and white women and lesbian and heterosexual women all share different experiences so therefore cannot be compared. Black feminists argue that by regarding the family solely on a source of ppression, white feminists neglect black womens experiences of racial oppression. The black family is positively viewed as a source of support and resistance against racism by black feminists. However other feminists argue that this approach neglects the fact that, despite such differences, women do in fact share many of the same experiences. For example, women face a greater risk of domestic violence and sexual assault and low pay compared with men. Feminism is criticised for ignoring the increased family diversity of families in the modern day, and although the nuclear family remains important, it is by no means the only family type.

Pro Social Behaviour And Islamic Spirituality Religion Essay

Pro Social Behaviour And Islamic Spirituality Religion Essay Spirituality has been defined as that which gives people meaning and purpose in life. Spirituality can be achieved through participation in a religion, but can be much broader than that, such as belief in God, family, naturalism, rationalism, humanism, and the arts. Islam is a religion based on a total submission to the will of the Almighty. The real place for the growth of the spirit is in the midst of life through carrying out all deeds and actions, both spiritual and worldly, as per the will of Allah. As the Quran mentions Those who spend in prosperity and in adversity, for those who curb their anger and those who forgive people. And Allah loves the charitable. In Islam there is significant emphasis on pro-social behaviour as a means to carry out the will of God. It is however seen that this aspect has not been emphasised either in formal training or informal socialisation in the practice of Islam. Accordingly a number of commentators have remarked that some of the ills presently afflicting Muslims in the sub-continent have been due to the neglect of the pro-social behavioural aspect. The present paper is an attempt to throw light on the importance given to pro social behaviour in Islam. Religion Spirituality, definition by psychologists, Islamic phil Pro social behavior, definition, altruism, giving etc Prosocial links with spirituality, other religions, and Islamic spirituality Conclusion: judeo-christian, why not in norms and moral imperative, not there, so conflicts, unhappiness in society, therefore promote spirituality, true meaning of life From an evolutionary perspective, early humans survival relied strongly on the processes of giving and helping. Religious practice has also been associated with prosocial and helping behaviors, as helping is often considered a religious obligation. Weight on giving and helping in the Judeo-Christian culture can be considered a primary reason that prosocial behavior is a social norm and moral imperative in Western Culture today  [2]  . Similar is the case with other religions where prosocial behavior is encouraged although to what extent it has percolated down to becoming a social norm is a debatable issue. The universal presence of prosocial behavior amongst humans has long been a significant puzzle in the social sciences  [3]  . Prosocial behavior can be defined as voluntary actions intended to help or benefit another individual or group of individuals. Prosocial behavior occurs when someone acts to help another person, particularly when they have no goal other than to help a fellow human. Actions that benefit other people or society as a whole are classified as prosocial behaviours. One of the characteristics of prosocial behaviour is that helping does not benefit the helper. It is opined that prosocial behaviour is often accompanied by a cost. Thus the decision to help others is often at a cost to the doer. Prosocial behavior has come to be seen as key in harmonious interpersonal and group interactions. A few terms and concepts frequently overlap in any discussion on prosocial behaviour. Terms like philanthropy, altruism, spirituality, volunteerism, charity, giving, and forgiveness etc are used while discussing prosocial behaviour. It would be useful to throw light on these concepts for a fuller understanding. Philanthropy is voluntary action for the common good, including voluntary giving, serving, and association. The key mechanisms that have been identified as determinants of philanthropy are: (1) awareness of need; (2) solicitation; (3) costs and benefits; (4) altruism; (5) reputation; (6) psychological benefits; (7) values; (8) efficacy. One of the explanations of prosocial behaviour is that people are motivated to behave in ways that help them attain some goal. Often ones own image becomes the prime mover in prosocial behaviour. Thus considerable prosocial behaviour is motivated by reputational incentives. Altruism on the other hand is performed without any reputational incent ives. However personal gratification as a reward cannot be ruled out even in altruistic behaviour. It is also seen that societal pressures and norms impact peoples choice of behaviour. Often people evaluate their lives and find that there is a need to make it more fullfilling by engaging in prosocial behaviour. Giving is viewed as a positive thing to do, especially when giving reduces inequality and when giving is less costly, recipients are not to blame, and is more effective. Giving may contribute to ones self-image as an altruistic, empathic, socially responsible, agreeable, or influential person. In addition, giving is in many cases an almost automatic emotional response, producing a positive mood, alleviating feelings of guilt, reducing aversive arousal, satisfying a desire to show gratitude, or to be a morally just person. There is ample evidence from studies on helping behaviour that helping others produces positive psychological consequences for the helper. There are several reasons why humans may have pleasurable psychological experiences upon giving: people may alleviate feelings of guilt (avoid punishment), feel good for acting in line with a social norm, or feel good for acting in line with a specific (prosocial, altruistic) self-image. Clary and Sneider  [4]  proposed a mod el identifying the factors that initiate volunteerism. They found that it is a combination of the desire to be altruistic, wish to be part of a group, wish to reduce guilt, and the desire to acquire knowledge and skills. Religious texts of all major religions encourage prosociality amongst their believers. The hypothesis that religions facilitate costly behaviours that benefit other people has been variously tested and commented upon. It has also been pointed out that the acute human sensitivity to prosocial reputation is a psychological mechanism, originating unrelated to religion that evolved to facilitate strong reciprocal cooperative bonds within groups  [5]  . It is seen that the threat of being found out therefore became a strong motivator for good behaviour. Norenzayan Shariff  [6]  point out that religious devotion is expected to be context-sensitive, with clear boundary conditions and religious situations habitually facilitate prosocial behaviour. It has also been seen that if religiosity is related to prosocial behaviour in some contexts, it is possible that having a prosocial disposition causes one to be religious. Spirituality is a universally accessible state of mind. It is inexplorable tied to the concept of religion. Pergament  [7]  discussed the question of what makes religion special and concluded that it is the unique substance and function of religion that makes it special. Thus the defining essence of religion is the sacred that refers to things set apart from ordinary life because of their connection to God, the holy, the divine; to transendent forces, Ulitmate truths and Utlimate reality. As Baumgardner and Crothers  [8]  put it, religion is not just a set of beliefs and practices; it also involves how these beliefs are used to answer lifes most profound questions and cope with lifes most difficult challenges. Pargament defines religion as a search for significance in ways related to the sacred and spirituality as a search for the sacred. Religion and religious behaviours represent the many ways in which the search for the sacred becomes organised and sanctioned in society. T hus spirituality becomes a means to address lifes most important questions. It would be interesting to examine the definition of spirituality as proposed by Hill et al  [9]  who define it as the feelings, thoughts, and behaviours that arise from a search for the sacredà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ people can take a virtually limitless number of pathways in their attempts to discover and conserve the sacred. These pathways to the sacred may also be described as spiritual strivings, which include personal goals associated with the ultimate concerns of purpose, ethics and recognition of the transecndent. Prosocial behaviour as it is understood can be classified in two broad groups on the basis of motivation, one a purely secular prosocial behaviour where actions to benefit others originate purely out of secular and personal concerns with no obvious and material benefit to the giver / helper. On the other hand a religiosity driven prosocial behaviour is where there is definite benefit to the individual in the form of promised salvation or pay offs as a result of following strict religious injunctions and duties. Let us take the example of Islam to examine how religious injunctions and prescriptions enjoin upon its followers to engage in behaviours that could be termed as prosocial behaviour. Islam is a religion based on a total submission to the will of the Almighty. According to Islam, Allah has appointed the human soul as His Khalifah (vicegerent) in this world. He has invested it with a certain authority, and given it certain responsibilities and obligations for the fulfillment of which He has endowed it with the best and most suitable physical frame. (Maududi). In his capacity as the vicegerent (Khalifah) of God, man is answerable to Him for all his activities. It is his duty to use all the powers that he has been given in accordance with the Divine will. He should utilize to the fullest extent all the faculties and potentialities bestowed upon him for seeking Allahs approval. In his dealings with other people he should behave in such a way as to try to please Allah. In brief, all his energies should be directed towards regulating the affairs of this world in the way in which Allah wants them to be regulated. The better a man does this, with a sense of responsibility, obedience and humility, and with the object of seeking the pleasure of the Lord, the nearer will he be to Allah. Islam rejects and condemns the ascetic view of life, and proposes that the spiritual development of man would take place not outside this world but inside it. The real place for the growth of the spirit is in the midst of life and not in solitary hibernation. In Islam, spiritual development is synonymous with nearness to Allah. Distance from Allah signifies, in Islam, the spiritual fall and decay of man. Maududi  [10]  points out that what will distinguish the actions of the secular and religious will be the nature of their relationship with Allah and the aims behind their actions. Whatever a religious man does, will be done with the feeling that he is answerable to Allah, that he must try to secure Divine pleasure, that his actions must be in accordance with Allahs laws. A secular person will be indifferent towards Allah and will be guided in his actions only by his personal motives. This difference makes the whole of the material life of a man of religion a totally spiritual venture, and the whole of the life of a secular person an existence devoid of the spark of spirituality. Thus spirituality is linking of actions to the purpose of life. Actions on their own, without using this framework are just actions or material constructs. The Islamic road to achieve spirituality passes through several stages, starting from Iman (faith) and progressing towards It~at (obedience, subservience), Taqwa (piety, Allah consciousness), to Ihis~an (Godliness). Faith (Iman) in Islam is a state of happiness acquired by virtue of positive action and constructive conceptions as well as dynamic and effective measures (Hammudah AA  [11]  ). According to Islam, true faith has a decisive effect on the spiritual and material lot of man, and also on his personal and social behaviour as well as his political conduct and economic life. There are numerous references in the Holy Quran and traditions of the Prophet on this aspect. The laws of practical ethics in the holy Quran rest largely upon the principles of justice, but charity, philanthropy, generosity, gratitude and sincerity are also recommended. Strict honesty is demanded in business dealings, with just balances, and upright intentions. Lies of all kinds are condemned, the taking of bribes is strictly forbidden. This is especially the case in regard to trusts concerning orphans. Wrong to the orphan is held to be a grievous sin, and in many Suras of the holy Quran there are one or two verses which say in effect Do not touch the property of orphans. Charity and philanthropy occupy a very important place. There are several commands like Pray, give alms, and the good which you do will find with God, who sees all your actions (Patrick, 1901). Thus we see that one the one hand, Allah commands man to follow all is commands and injunctions, yet at the same time prescribes a prosocial behavioural path for him to follow. In essence, the spirituality of Islam is in fact the righteous and prosocial behavior with the knowledge that it is being done with the pure intention of pleasing Allah.

Physics of Color Vision and Color Blindness Essay example -- physics e

What is Color? To understand what color is, we first need to understand what light is. Light, as perceived by humans, is simply electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths between roughly 380 nm and 740 nm. Wavelengths below 380 nm and above 740 nm cannot be seem by the human eye. Electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength just below 380 nm is known as ultraviolet radiation. Electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength just above 740 nm is known as infrared radiation. The sun, black lights and fluorescent lamps are all sources of ultraviolet light. Heat is a source of infrared radiation, which is how thermal vision works. Electromagnetic radiation between the wavelengths of 380 nm and 740 nm constitute light and the human color-vision spectrum. There is evidence that other animals, namely insects and birds, have a color-vision spectrum that extends further into the ultraviolet range. Evolutionary factors greatly influence the development of color vision in different animals and species. Although the human color-vision spectrum is continuous, it can be broken down into discrete ranges of colors which are then labeled with specific names. Surfaces gain the appearance of color based on their reflection and absorption of different wavelengths of light. A surface that reflects all wavelengths of light appears to be white. Conversely, a surface that absorbs all wavelengths of light appears to be black (and also heats up as a consequence of absorbing this electromagnetic radiation). If a surface does not reflect all wavelengths of light equally, it will appear as a color in the human color-vision spectrum. Color Vision Color vision is a highly-debated gray area that lies somewhere between physics and psychology. As we h... ... apart. Be afraid to drive near me because I'm a bad driver. I didn't feel so smart in kindergarten. Between the color flash-card tests and the green suns I was apparently drawing with my crayons, kindergarten was not exactly the high-point of my life. Thank goodness for those little brown spots on bananas! They say that bananas go from being green to yellow when they ripen. To me, they go from being yellow to yellow, so I only trust the spots. Bananas rule! That one game of soccer... When I was a kid, I played in this one game of soccer where my team had green jerseys and the opponents had yellow jerseys. Somewhere in the middle of this game, the sun started shining in such a way that I could not tell the jerseys apart anymore. This was the worst game of soccer I've played in my life. I quit soccer and took up bowling. I showed them.

Relationship of Dreams to Thought, Memory, and Smell :: Sleep Dream

Dreams involve a fundamental integration and spreading of being and experience at the mid-range of feeling between thought and sense. Since dreams [already] involve a fundamental integration and spreading of being and experience at what is the mid-range of feeling between thought and sense, the sense of smell very rarely occurs while dreaming, and the lighting and sound levels are fairly constant (and proper) therein. Memory integrates experience. There is less memory in the dream because experience is already better integrated, and also because experience is less extensive. Dreams improve upon memory and understanding by increasing (or adding to) the integrated extensiveness of being and experience (including thought) in and with time. The sense of relative familiarity involving dream experience is associated with the improvement of understanding and memory therein. Dreams and memory integrate experience, and both add to the extensiveness of experience (including thought) as well, w hile involving a [relative] reduction in the totality of experience. Since the self has extensiveness of being and experience (in and with time) in conjunction with the integrated and natural extensiveness of sensory experience, we spend less time dreaming (and sleeping) than waking. The integrated extensiveness of being and experience go hand in hand. Emotion that is comprehensive and balanced advances consciousness. Dreams are an emotional experience. The comprehensiveness and consistency of both intention and concern are central to our consciousness, life, and growth. (Desire consists of both intention and concern, thereby including interest as well.) The comprehensiveness and consistency of both intention and concern in relation to experience in general is ultimately dependent upon the natural and integrated extensiveness of sensory experience. In keeping with this, consciousness and language involve the ability to represent, form, and experience comprehensive approximations of experience in general, and this includes art and music as well. If the self did not represent, form, and experience a comprehensive approximation of experience in general, we would be incapable of growth and of becoming other than we are. Thought involves a relative reduction in the range and extensiveness of feeling. In keeping with this, dreams make thought more like sensory experience in general. Accordingly, both thought and also the range and extensiveness of feeling are proportionately reduced in the dream. (This reduction in the range and extensiveness of feeling during dreams is consistent with the fact that the experience of smell very rarely occurs therein.

Does Globalisation of the media offer more or less opportunities for democracy? Essay

We live in society today where the media plays an alarmingly big part in how we see the world, and how our opinions are formed, whether it is from what we watch on television to who we vote for. The media has helped to make our society a democracy by placing emphasis on issues that at one stage in time would have been considered strictly private issues such as child birth, homosexuality, child care, domestic violence, and sexual harassment. Due to this democracy we now look differently at politics, and are more active in whom we want in office, and how we want our children to be raised. The globalisation of the media has increased our access to information about people and events around the world, but in the process it has also shifted issues on what should or should not be in the public domain.1 The media performs an essential part in our democracy socially, politically, economically and culturally. It is the main source of political information and allows us to access political debate. It allows us as an audience to be informed and to participate in how we should perceive things. Democracy needs the media to provide people with a wide range of opinions, analysis and debates on important issues. It needs the media to be able to reflect on the diversity of the audience, and it needs the media to be accountable for what is going on around them, and to be diverse and deliberate in how they communicate these issues to audiences. 2 The increased information given to audiences has a ‘democratising effect’, mobilising audiences into action, which in turn has significant implications for governments and businesses. International relations and events in our democracy are more visible and transparent, have more domestic policy ramifications and involve the public more often. While the globalised media plays a big part in our democracy, and has been characterised by the massive economic expansion and technical innovation it has also caused many problems for democracy. There is an increase in inequality, cultural and social tumult and individual alienation. The digital revolution and introduction of new technologies are redefining our notions of politics yes, but they are also redefining the structuring powers in society. Increasingly power resides in the hands of those that can produce, control and disseminate information the most effectively. This goes back to Marx’s theory that those who control the world govern it. While the proliferation of communications and increased global interdependence might create global understanding, equality and harmony it doesn’t necessarily mean that there is an increase in human communication and co-operation. If anything it is leading to the replacement of traditional structures, such as family religion, and the community with one that are supposedly more relevant.3 There are too few transnational media conglomerates dominating the world media, and fewer than 24 media conglomerates account for the majority of our newspapers, magazines, films, television and radio. With only a few big conglomerates running the show the media has become a vehicle used for commercial exploitation. There has been a steady increase of commercialisation of sports, arts, and education. This is disturbing when audiences are turning to the media to tell us how to vote, and how the government is being run. The media is constantly used by these conglomerates to spread existing structures and values, which are dominant globally and emphasise the free-market economy and the capitalist liberal democracy. The spread of the media has in fact broken down barriers to communications and international commerce, and makes it more difficult for governments and regulatory bodies to protect their cultures and societies from commercialisation and advertising.4 The main conglomerates have made the media very concentrated. Companies such as Times-Warner, Disney and Viacom have such diverse media holdings that they own both the means of production and distributing, further concentrating the media outlets and the information that we receive through the mass media. The media is vertical where production and distribution companies are allowed to own various types of networks, channels, and television stations. The media is supposed to be neutral yet how can they be so neutral when companies seem to ignore the important role that culture and social values play in shaping information. How can they be neutral when only a few conglomerate companies run them? The choices made everyday by government officials, media producers and distributors determine what topics are covered, what they want us to know and what they don’t want us to know, what information is selected and how it is portrayed. The simple choice of one story over another is not just economical and professional but also political.5 The choices that the media makes in presenting stories determines what becomes part of its audiences natural consciousness and what values and ideas take precedence to the general public. But these choices are not made by what they think the public wants but based on their own beliefs, and reflect cultural, social and national values and identity. The mass media is viewed as a means to increase diversity, democracy and the power of the individual. Yet more and more it seems that the media is a vehicle being used by the government and the producers to manipulate the community and advertise. It is assumed that the more television channels we have, the more diverse the information we receive. But this is a misconception, as Western Products, Hollywood values and advertising dominate nearly all of the media. More often now than not the information that is transmitted by the media is infotainment and advertising. The media is used so that audiences find it more difficult to have an impact on policies, goals and directions of their own social, economic and political institutions. As mentioned the media is owned by transnational corporations that command huge economies, run from the top and are interlinked in various ways. Their first interest is profit, and to construct an audience of a particular type. One that is addicted to a certain life-style with artificial wants. Their primary function is selling audiences to advertisers. They don’t make money from their subscriptions. They make money when an advertiser pays them. They believe in free market principles for others, but not for themselves. The major corporations in every society rely very heavily on state subsidy and state intervention.6 Making a profit from their advertising fees means that media outlets are influenced by various corporate interests. News coverage and other media content is therefore affected. Stories can end up being biased or omitted so that they don’t offend their advertisers or their owners. Corporate media is not a good thing for democracy when there is a risk of an increased economic and political influence that becomes unaccountable for. That is a great concern in democracy. Companies such as Newslimited and Times-Warner are so big that they have the power to stop other companies setting in on what they consider their turf. Times-Warner owns everything from Cable TV to sports teams and smaller companies that don’t have these options find that they can not compete in the media market. The problem with this is that with so few companies in complete power they are the ones making the decisions to what information is disseminated to the public, and this is done but what they think will make them a profit, and what will be beneficial to them. Companies such as News Corp wrote about the heroics of the War on terrorism, and the Iraq War because it was beneficial for them to support the U.S Government. The information filtered through to audiences was biased because it wasn’t telling people why there was a war, but that we should be supporting it. This was done because it would make them profit, and work in their favour. This was also shown in 1998 when Rupert Murdoch personally intervened to prevent one of the companies that he owned, HarperCollins, from publishing the memoirs of former Governor of Hong Kong, Chris Patton. He alleged that it was because he didn’t want the memoirs to offend the Government, but it was in fact because it might jeopardise plans by News Corp to have future expansion in China.7 Firms in the media industry compete with each other, but they also work together to reduce competition and in fact the nine largest American firms have joint ventures with nearly six of the other eight giants. Rupert Murdoch’s News Corp has at least one joint venture with every other of his competitors. This is not an appealing notion for we, as the audience has little say in what is produced. It also sadly it indicates that the main purpose to our media is only to make money for those huge companies in charge. If this is the case then how can Journalists be protected from the commercial interests of their owners? And how can information be filtered out evenly without bias when media owners wish to sell their space to the highest advertiser. Journalists claim to give readers the news that they think is important to their lives, but in fact tend to be assisting in the process of converting Journalism into the type of consumer news and information that advertisers want.8 Global conglomerates such as Times-Warner, News Corp, Sony, Viacom, Bertelsmann, and AT & T have an impact on our culture, especially when they are entering nations that have been tightly controlled by an already corrupt media system or nations that have significant censorship over media such as China. The Global companies don’t have respect for tradition or custom especially if it stands in the way of profits. Another problem with having such a globalised media in our democracy is that the media produces so much knowledge, information, dissemination of everything and that produces an absence of everything too, and in doing so produce a situation that causes too many images. The mode of production is then affected. The media has introduced us to a world with no fixed territory, a world increasingly without limits. This can cause us, as an audience to have a loss of sensibility, a loss of limits. This affects the mode of production. One does not produce what is absent, or what is invisible. It affects the production of culture, by mixing them with different cultures.9 If anything the consolidation of ownership across the various media remains a threat to democracy. The public’s right to information and ideas from the widest possible range of sources means little in a world dominated by a handful of interlocking media giants. The news programs that people see, and the advertisements that accompany them are dominated by the success of white, wealthy westerners and the examples of the dangers posed to them are poor, black, non-westerners. Women are also represented in the media by glamorous models, actresses and news presenters. The problem with a globalised media in a democracy is that it can ruin the public infrastructure and that in turn means the demise of the public sector, which results in privatisation and more commercialism. Media ownership and media concentration becomes a problem when audiences are not becoming well informed because the audience or public can not act as an authoritarian. The danger of living in such a world means that while there is an increase in the mode of communication, new forms of identity and community there is an equal loss in political sovereignty, economic opportunity and cultural diversity. 1 Healey, Justin Mass Media and Society, Spinney Press, 2000 2 McChesney Making Media democratic, Boston Review issue 23 3 Mowlana, Hamid Globalisation of the mass media, London-Sage Publications, 1997 4 Tunstall, Jeremy The new Hollywood Network Cartel and Europe, Carleton University Press 1998 5 Chomsky Noam Media and Globalisation Third World Network, 1996 6 OECD Globalisation: challenges and opportunities OECD Publishing 2000 7 Wiseman, John Global Nation, Cambridge University Press, 1998 8 Kortin, David, The mythical victory of Market Capitalism Goldsmith, Edward and Mender, San Francisco 1996 9 McChessney, Robert Global media, neoliberalism, and imperialism, Monthly review, volume 52 issue 10 2001